![]() It is feasible that many of these virus-host interactions, where the host remains unharmed, may persist unidentified, as infection may not present clearly recognisable symptoms. While it is known that infection by some viruses imparts deleterious effects on their host, in other cases, the relationship between the two may be mutually beneficial ( Pradeu, 2016 Jagdale and Joshi, 2018). In conjunction with this, the interaction between host and virus remains unclear in many cases ( Paez-Espino et al., 2016). While viruses dominate most habitats, the virome is far from complete. This genetic diversity gives rise to a lack of understanding or an unawareness of many of the viruses present in our environment. While structurally, most viruses present similar characteristics, such as the symmetric capsid proteins, genetically, they are highly diverse. An assembled, infectious, virus particle is termed a virion ( Banerjee and Mukhopadhyay, 2016). The viral genome also encodes proteins which facilitate replication and assembly of the virus particles. Lipid envelopes are derived from the cell membrane of the infected host, whereas glycoprotein envelopes are typically coded for by the viral genome. This is generally comprised of a lipid or glycoprotein coating. In addition to the capsid protein, some viruses will have an added layer of protection known as an envelope. However, the capsid is also known to be multifunctional, with roles in cell-entry, genome uncoating or intracellular trafficking ( Mateu, 2013 Freire et al., 2015). The capsid packages the viral nucleic acid, protecting it. The capsid is a highly symmetrical structure, formed by multiple copies of a small number of proteins and encoded by the viral genome ( Domingo, 2015). These are a nucleic acid genome, comprised of either double- or single-stranded DNA or RNA, and a capsid. Structurally, at a minimum, viruses consist of two core components. They exist in all habitats and are capable of infecting a wide range of life forms, from bacteria to plants and animals. Viruses are ubiquitous entities which rely on host organisms to replicate. In addition, the ability to sequence large numbers of viral genomes would provide researchers with enhanced information and assist in tracing infections. Alongside these methods, the application of next-generation sequencing can provide highly specific results. However, immunoassays typically cannot achieve comparable sensitivity to nucleic acid-based detection methods. Furthermore, some immunoassay formats, such as those using lateral-flow technology, can generate results very rapidly. ![]() Alternatively, immunoassays offer robustness and reduced costs. ![]() ![]() The use of isothermal-based amplification systems for detection could aid in the reduction of results turnaround and equipment-associated costs, making them appealing for point-of-use applications, or when high volume/fast turnaround testing is required. Nucleic acid-based detection generally offers high sensitivity, but can be time-consuming, costly, and require trained staff. Currently, nucleic-acid detection and immunoassay methods are among the most popular means for quickly identifying viral infection directly from source. This review provides a critical analysis of widely used methods and examines their advantages and limitations. This risk of pathogenicity, alongside the fact that many viruses can rapidly mutate highlights the need for suitable, rapid diagnostic measures. While many impart no deleterious effects on their hosts, several are major pathogens. Viruses are ubiquitous in the environment.
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